~ Cold War Notes ~
Stage One - Salami tactics:
o
Soviet Union
gained control over Eastern Europe by ‘salami tactics’
o
Term from
Hungarian Communist leader, Rakosi
o
Stage 1:
Soviets supervised the organization of governments
o
Stage 2: Each
of the parties was ‘sliced off’
o
Communism was
left and then local Communists were replace (if need be) by Moscow-trained
people
o
‘Baggage
Train’ leaders who spent much of war in Moscow and returned to Eastern Europe
were considered trustworthy and thus these leaders would ensure that post-war
governments of their countries would be dominated by Moscow-backed ‘Stalinist’
Communists
Example -
Poland:
o
‘Free
elections’ promised by Stalin at Yalta were not held until 19 January 1947
o
Before
elections had been a campaign of murder, censorship, and intimidation
o
Over 50,000
people were deported to Siberia before the elections
o
During
elections Mikolajczyk’s Polish Peasant Party had 246 candidates disqualified;
149 were arrested and 18 murdered
o
1 million
votes were taken off the electoral register for some reason or another
o
Communists
secured complete control
o
Pattern of
securing Soviet-Communist style governments occurred in – Bulgaria, Romania,
and Hungary
Soviet Pressure on Iran
o
Tried to
increase political control in Iran because Stalin wanted rights to Black Sea
Straits and to Iranian oil as did his former allies
o
At the Tehran
Conference it was agreed that both British and Soviets would withdraw troops
after war
o
UK took
troops but Stalin left 30,000 in north, claiming they were needed there to help
put down rebellion
o
Soviet troops
encouraged a Communist uprising
o
UN had first
crisis and troops retreated
Instability in
Greece and Turkey
o
After WWII
there anti-imperialist, nationalist, and some pro-Communist rebellions
o
Rebellions
were been directed and supported by Soviets
o
Churchill, in
particular, was annoyed at Stalin’s disregard for the ‘Percentages Agreement’
Communist
parties in Italy and France
o
Membership
increased due to economic deprivations and hardships
o
Americans and
British concerned parties were receiving encouragement from Moscow
o
Italy and
France could be the weak-links in anti-Communist Western Europe
Step Two - George Kennan’s long telegram
(February 1946):
o
US diplomat
is Moscow
o
Key ideas:
o
The USSR’s
view of world was a traditional one of insecurity
o
The Soviet’s
want to advance Stalinist ideology
o
Soviet regime
was cruel and repressive and justified by perceiving nothing but evil in the
outside world. That a hostile view
of the outside world would sustain the internal Stalinist system
o
The USSR were
hostile to west, but would withdraw when strong resistance is encountered
o
‘Impevorous
to the logic of reason,
Moscow [is] highly sensitive to the logic of force.’
o
Kennan’s
‘logic of force’ argument helped harden attitudes in US and played large roll
in development of US policy
Step Three – Churchill’s Iron Certain
Speech (March 1946):
o
Defining
moments in Cold War
o
Former
British Prime Minister speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri
o
Basis for
speech was that by 1946, Soviet-dominated Communist governments were set up in
Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romanian
o
In spite of
Yalta where it was agreed that there’d be free/democratic elections
o
Communist
regimes not directly linked to Moscow established in Albania and Yugoslavia
o
Presence of
Red Army in countries ‘liberated’ from Germany
o
Within three
years Soviet influence extend to East Germany and Czechoslovakia
Soviet Reaction
to speech
o
Outrage
o
Stalin
compared Churchill to Hitler
o
Speech had
led to further hardening of opinions on both sides
o
Soviets
withdrew from International Monetary Fund (IMF)
o
Intense
anti-Western propaganda
o
Initiated
five-year plan for self-strengthening
Step Four: The Truman Doctrine
o
Truman made
speech at Congress on March 12, 1947
o
Put forth US
had obligation to ‘support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressures.’
o
Radical
change in US foreign policy of ‘isolationists’
o
In response
to unstable Greece and Turkey
o
British
government could no longer offer assistance to Greek government as war left
them £3,000 million debt
o
US didn’t
want communist take over so US aid and military advisers were sent over to
Greece in name of preserving democracy over communism
o
‘Doctrine
became an ideological shield behind which the US marched to rebuild Western
political and economic system and counter radical left’ – Walter LaFeber
Step Five: The Marshall Plan
o
Economic
extension of the ideas in the Truman Doctrine
o
‘Without
which there can be no political stability and no assure peace.’
o
Designed to
give immediate economic help to Europe
o
Involved
allowing the US to investigate the financial records of applicants – USSR not
tolerate condition
o
The stated
aims of Marshall Plan:
o
Revive
European working economies so that political and social stability could ensue
o
Safeguard the
future of the US economy
o
To avoid the
interpretation that US was coercing European governments to accept, made clear
‘initiative must come from Europe.’
o
Success of
bill was due to the Czechoslovakian Coup February 1948
o
Previously
the US had attempted to unite West with economic tactics; now they were on the
path towards military unity
Soviet Reaction
to Marshall Plan
o
Soviets
rejected Plan, as Americans intended them to because asked for financial
records
o
Soviets saw a
primary example of ‘dollar imperialism’ – US establishing European empire by
economic domination and dependence, which would ultimately give political
control
o
In response
came up with Molotov Plan, which was a series of bilateral trade agreements aimed
to tie the economies of Eastern Europe to the USSR
o
Outcome was
creation of COMECON in January 1949 (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)
o
Designed to
stimulate and control their economic development and support collectivization
of agriculture and development of heavy industry
Cominform and
the ‘Two Camps’ doctrine
o
Cominform –
Communist Information Bureau made in September 1947
o
Instrument to
increase Stalin’s control over Communist parties of other countries
o
Communists
from USSR, Yugoslavia, France, Italy, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania
o
West concerned organization would spread
Communism
o
Stalin’s ‘Two
Camps’ Doctrine – developed his idea of Europe divided
o
Became a firm
foundation of Soviet policy
o
February 1946
Stalin delivered speech emphasizing creation of two camps
o
Americans had
organized an ‘anti-Soviet’ bloc of countries
o
The ‘second
camp’ was USSR and ‘new democracies’ of Eastern Europe
o
Soviet
Doctrine very similar to ‘new world order’ outlined by Truman
Step Six: Red Army occupation of Eastern
Europe (1945-47):
o
Came to
control states by creating ‘satellite empire’
o
Countries
keep separate legal identities but were tied into following Moscow’s line by:
o
Soviet
military power (later formalized in Warsaw Pact in 1955)
o
‘Salami
tactics’ which transferred the machinery of the government into obedient
pro-Soviet communists
o
State police
and security/spy network
o
COMECON
o
Soviet
control was in place in most Eastern European countries by 1947
o
Remained
Czechoslovakia – Stalin decided that a coup to finally oust non-Communist
members of the government would be necessary
o
By 1948,
satellite states were economically and militarily under USSR control
o
Western
allies saw ‘occupation’ of Eastern Europe as a direct breach pf the agreements
made at Yalta and Potsdam
The ‘Mr X
article’
o
Written by
Keenan for Foreign Affairs
in 1947
o
‘Continue to
regard the Soviet Union as a rival, not a partner’
o
Keenan was a
strong influence on Truman
o
His
reputation as the US key expert on Soviet policy also gave him influence over
public opinion
Step Seven: The Czechoslovakian coup
(February 1948):
o
Czechoslovakia
was seen as moving towards the west – expressed interest in Marshall Plan
o
Sentimental
feeling in West for the Czechs after their ‘abandonment’ in Munich Agreements of
1938
o
February 1948
Stalin organized pressure on Czechoslovakian coalition government
o
12
non-communist members were forced to resign
o
Czech
communist party leader demanded formation of a communist-led government
o
Independent
Czech foreign minister, Masaryk was found dead and Truman responded quickly
calling it a ‘coup’
o
Financing of
Marshall Plan had not been passed through Congress so events pushed bill
through
o
‘Czech coup’
was directly responsible for the implementation of the Marshall Plan
Step Eight: The Berlin crisis of 1948
o
Unlike Japan,
much more difficult to leave Germany undivided during occupation
o
At Yalta and
Potsdam it was agreed that Germany should be divided temporarily be divided
into four zones administered by the Allied Control Council (ACC) with Berlin’s
government being the responsibility of the Allied Kommandantura
o
Intended to
treat Germany as one economic unit and expected Germany would emerge as a
united independent state
o
By 1949,
Germany had become permanently divided into two separate states
Why did the
post war powers fail to unify Germany?
o
Germany’s key
strategic position and differing aims of the main powers
o
Potential
economic strength because of geographical location
o
USSR didn’t
want a resurgent united Germany pose a threat to security
o
Wished for
reparations of some $20billion
o
France feared
united Germany so not keen to hasten recovery
o
US come to
see best hope for European peace would lie in rapid economic recovery of
Germany – best way of containing communism
o
The
increasing lack of trust between East and West
o
Difference in
aims and attitudes
o
Mutual
suspicions
o
Became
concerned that the powerful Germany could be a threat if it ever joined forces
with the other side
o
By 1946
divided in both economic and political terms
o
The specific
disputes between post-war powers within Germany itself
o
Economic
conflict – reparations
o
Arrangements
set up at Potsdam whereby the USSR was to take 25% of German industrial
equipment from the Western zones in return for supplying those zones with food
and raw material, but didn’t work as food shortages especially with refugees
from Eastern Europe
o
Not
delivering enough food to Western zones and being secretive about what it was
taking from Soviet zone
o
US and UK
stopped supplies to Soviet Zone
o
Soviets wanted
coal from Western zones, but US wanted to use German coal to assist in the
economic reconstruction of Western Europe
o
Early 1947,
British and American zones were merged into one unit called Bizonia
o
Also
political conflict
o
Stalin was
planning as early as June 1945 to incorporate a reunified Germany within
Moscow’s sphere of influence
o
Done using
Red Army to control Soviet zone while the Communist Party of Germany (KPD)
would attempt to get popular support
o
April 1946
the Soviets forced through a merger of political parties in their zone to form
just one party- the Socialist Unity Party (SED)
o
Not
successful in winning over West Germans
o
Would bring
minimal economic assistance (compared to Marshall Aid) and no chance of
democracy
o
SED leaders
began planning their own separate regime in the East
o
By 1948,
Western powers were beginning to think about consolidating their n zones and
establishing within them a provisional German government
o
London
Conference of Ministers in 1947 – Western and Soviet powers throwing
recriminations at each other
o
Agreement on
Germany’s future was remote
o
London
Conference in 1948, France, Britain, and US met to draw up constitution for new
West German state and introduce new currency
o
Blockade was
to thwart plan and force West out Berlin
o
The Berlin
Blockade 1948
o
As agreed at
Potsdam, Berlin had been divided by four occupying powers
o
Problem –
Berlin lay 100 miles in Soviet zone sealed off
o
Rely on
receiving food and energy supplies from West delivered along rail, road, and
air corridors
o
March 1948 –
Stalin started putting a stranglehold on Western interests in West Berlin via
transport restrictions
o
23-24 June
1948 – Stalin began total blockade, railroads, roads and waterways closed
o
USSR left Kommandantura, having already left ACC in March
o
First crisis
of Cold War
o
West didn’t
try to defeat blockade by force, but rather supplied Berlin from the air
o
Ended
blockade May after admitting failure
Results of
Berlin Blockade
o
First time
since 1945 war became a possibility
o
Led to:
o
Division of
Germany
·
West set up
Federal Republic of Germany in September 1949
·
Soviets set
up the German Democratic Republic
·
Neither side
could contemplate the idea of a united Germany which could be an ally to the
other side
·
For West, a
divided Germany protected by US was preferable to neutral united Germany
·
Europe was
divided politically and economically
o
Continuation
of four-power control in Berlin
·
Berlin
remained divided city
·
Major source
of friction
o
Formation of
the NATO
·
Soviet threat
to Berlin, following the Czech coup, reinforced suspicions
·
Emphasized
need for US defense in Europe
·
Formation of
NATO April 1949 between USA, Canada, the Brussels Powers, Norway, Denmark, some
more
·
US Congress
approved a military assistance program to build up European forces
·
Presence in
Europe was departure from normal US policy
Conclusions drawn about Europe’s
situation at end of 1949:
o
Divided along
economic, political, military lines
o
Germany
wasn’t to be united
o
Two clear
states, although neither was prepared to recognize the existence of each other
o
US had
abandoned peacetime policy of avoiding commitments – involved in NATO, Marshall
Plan
o
No peace
treaty signed with Germany and boarders not formalized
o
Worrying for
Poland as it now included territory taken from Germany in 1945
o
Western countries
had developed unity
o
Many conflicts in world
related to struggle between communism and capitalism
o
USA had policy of
containment that lead to US resisting communism and fighting in Korean and
Vietnam war
o
UN were never to play
role envisioned
o
US and USSR opposing
eachother and able to use their respective vetoes, the UN couldn't act
effectivly to respolve international conflicts
Historiography
Orthodox view
o
Traditional view
o
Soviets were
expansionist, due too their suspicion of the West and in accordance to their
Marxist theory, which advocates the need to spread the revolution throughout
the world
o
Violated Postsdam and
Yalta agreements, occupied and imposed Soviet control in Eastern Europe and
'plotted' to spread Communism throughout the world with Moscow at center
o
US had to act
defensively, from the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan and establishment
of NATO
o
Historian - Arthur
Schlesinger, W.H. McNeil and H. Feis
Revisionist view
o
Foreign policy in US
crumbled during Vietnam War
o
Held responsible for
Cold War
o
'Dollar diplomacy' -
motives behind the US foreign policy were lnked to the needs of Capitalism
o
Containment of communism
was driven by requirement to secure markets and free trade and penetrate
Eastern Europe
o
Gabriel and Joyce Kolko
view Soviet action as even less relevant to US foreign policy
o
American policy
determined by the nature of Capitalism and fears of recession
o
Thomas PAtterson -
'coercion characterized US reconstruction diplomacy'
o
Stalin himself was a
pragmatic leader and had Americans been willing to understand the Soviets' need
for security and offer some comprimises, Stalin would have made concessions
o
P.M.S. Blanckett -
dropping the nuclear bombs was not important as the last military campaign of
WWII, but rather as the first diplomatic move by US in Cold War
o
Alperovitz suggests
Japan was already defeated, and this 'new weapon was used to warn and intmidate
Soviets
Post-revisitionist View
o
Stress the USA and USSR
can't be held solely responsible for origins
o
John Lewis Gaddis -
'complicated interaction of external and internal developments inside US and
USSR'
o
Walter LaFaber/John
Lewis Gaddis - misinterpretations played important part
o
Super powers
overestimated the strenght and threat of eachother
o
Tension of 1940s was a
result of a pattern of 'action and reaction' - both sides were improvising
rather than following a well-defined plan of action
o
West did not fully
recognize Soviet's motives
Views of post-Cold War
historians
o
John Lewis Gaddis - 'as
long as Stalin was running the Soviet Union, a Cold War was unavoidable'
o
Fall of Soviet Union in
1989-90, many new Soviet sources were made available
o
Russian historians were
also now free to write their own accounts
o
Focus on role of Stalin
o
Stalin's policies with
the Soviet totalitarian/authoritarian govenrment drew West into an escalation
of hostility and the protracted arms race
o
If Stalin is removed
from equation, Cold War unlikely to have developed
o
Individuals and their
actions, rather than policies of whole governments, are vital importance in
explaining key events in Cold War
o
Obveous in origins of
Korean War and Berlin Crisis
European role in development
of Cold War
o
1980s - governments
realised private documents '30 year rule'
o
European governments,
economically devistated by war, haboured deep anxieties about Soviet
expansionism had important impact on US foreign policy
o
British hightened US
awareness and perception of Soviet threat - Churchill Iron Speech
o
Revisionist and
post-revisionist did not conseder complexity of US foreign policy
o
Geir Lunestad - cannot
be properly understood by taking into account the influence of external
factors, such as European fears and opinions
Soviet perspective
o
Due to censorship and
controls
o
'Soviet Revisionists'
Focused on the role of Stalin
o
Initial stages of Cold
War, Soviets maintained that Americans were pursuing a policy of agressive
'dollar imperialism' dictated by needs of Capitalism
o
Accused US of trying to
take over Europe economically and under control 'of strong and enriched foreign
firms, banks and industrial companies'
o
Moscow was trying to
'find security' to rebuild after war
o
Historians on both sides
iron certian have reconsidered the role of ideology and the search for security
in Soviet foreign policy
o
Crucial initial stages
of the Cold War the Soviets believed that the triumph of socialism was
unavoidable and USSR should help Communist groups to fulfil this aim
o
Greatest motive for USSR
froeign policy was fear if renewed German and Japnese agression, and agression
from capitalist world
'Balance of Power' vs Ideology
o
Conflict wasn't about
ideology
o
USA and USSR
expansionist powers
o
Hostility followed 1945
was a continuation of policies they had respectivly pursued since 19th century
o
LaFaber - did not
initially come into conflict becuase one was communist and other capitalist -
America expanded westward and Russia eastward
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