~ Cold War Notes ~
Intoduction
o
Harmony
that had existed between USSR USA and Britain were to wear thin
o
Decade
after 1945 saw the first phase of Cold War
o
Continued
until the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe between 1989-91
o
Instead
of allowing their mutual hostility to express itself in open fighting, the
rival powers attacked each other with propaganda, economic measures, and a
general policy of non-cooperation
o
Communist
governments came into power in Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
Albania, Czechoslovakia, East Germany (1949), North Korea (1948), and China
o
USA
hastened the recovery of Japan and worked closely with Britain and 14 other
European countries, providing them with economic aid in order to build up an
anti-Communist bloc
o
Whatever
one bloc suggested or did was viewed by the other as having ulterior motives
What
caused the Cold War?
Difference
of principles
o
Basis
of conflict lay in the differences of principle between the communist states
and the capitalist or liberal-democratic states
o
Communist
system was bases on the ideas of Karl Marx; he believed the wealth of the
county should be collectively owned and shared by everyone and economy should
be centrally planned.
o
The
capitalists system operated on the basis of private ownership of a country's
wealth. The driving forces are private enterprise in the pursuit of making
profit, and the preservation of the power of private wealth
o
Stalin
(came into power 1929) was convinced that there would be another attempt by the
capitalist powers to destroy communism in Russia - German invasion of Russia in
1941 proved him right
Stalin's
Foreign Policy
o
Aim
to take advantage of the military situation to strengthen Russia's influence in
Europe
o
Tried
to occupy as much as Germany and acquire as much land as possible - Finland,
Poland, and Romania
o
West
was alarmed with what they viewed Soviet aggression - believed that he was
committed to spread communism
US
and Britain hostile to Soviet government
o
Roosevelt
trusted Stalin - died April 1945
o
Successor
Harry S Truman was more suspicious and toughened attitude towards communists
o
Truman's
main motive for dropping atomic bomb was not simply to defeat Japan, but warn
Russia
o
Stalin
suspected that USA and Britain were keen to destroy communism: he felt their
delay in the invasion of France (june 1944) was deliberately calculated to
exhaust Russia. America didn't tell Stalin about atomic bomb, and they rejected
request hat Russia should share in the occupation of Japan
o
Moreover,
the West had the atomic bomb and the USSR did not
Which
side was to blame?- Historiography
o
1950
western historians -such as American George Keenan, blamed Stalin, arguing
his motives were sinister, that he intended to spread communism and destroy
capitalism. The formation of NATO and American entry into the Korean War were
the West's self-defence against communist aggression
o
Soviet
historians 1960s and 1970s - argued that the Cold War ought not be blamed
on Stalin and the Russians. Their theory was that Russia had suffered enormous
losses and should be expected that Stalin would try to make sure neighbouring
states were friendly, given Russia's weakness in 1945. Believed that Stalin's
motives were purely defensive and not threatening
o
Revisionist
View - Some Americans claim that the US should have been more sympathetic.
Actions of American politicians, especially Truman, provoked Russian hostility
unnecessarily.
o
1960
- many people in Us became critical of US foreign policy, especially Vietnam
war, which caused some historians to reconsider the American attitude towards
communism
o
Post-revisionist
interpretation - American historians in 80s - able to look at documents and
visit archives. New evidence suggested that situation at the end of the war was
more complicated. Took middle view, arguing that both sides should take e Blair
for the Cold War. Believed that American economic policies were deliberately
designed to increase US political influence in Europe. Although Stalin had no
long-term plans to spread communism, he was an opportunist who would take
advantage of any weakness in the West to expand Soviet influence. The crude
Soviet methods of forcing communist governments on Eastern Europe were bound to
lend proof to claims that Stalin's aims were expansionists.
o
The
US and USSR created an atmosphere were every international act could be
interpreted in two ways: what was necessary for self-defence by one side was
taken by the other as evidence of aggressive intent
Yalta
conference (February 1945)
o
Held
in Russia and attended by Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill
o
Plan
what was to happen when the war ended
o
At
the time is seemed a success, agreement being reached on several points
o
A
new organisation, United Nations, was to replace League of Nations
o
Germany
was to divided into zones - Russian, American, and British zones (later French) were to be established,
while Berlin, which was in the middle of the Russian zone, would be split into
corresponding zones. Similar arrangements were to be made for Austria
o
Free
elections would be allowed in the states of Eastern Europe
o
Stalin
promised to join the war against Japan on the condition that Russia received
territory
o
Signs
of trouble over Poland
o
When
Russian army liberated Poland they set up a communist government in Lublin,
even though there was a Polish government in exile in London
o
Agreed
at Yalta that some members (non-communists) of the London based government
should be allowed to joint he Lublin government, while in return, Russia would
be given a strip of Eastern Poland which she had annexed in 1939. Roosevelt and
Churchill were displeased with Stalin's demands that Poland should be given all
German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse, no agreement was reached
on this point
Potsdam
Conference (July 1945)
o
Distinctly
cooler atmosphere
o
Stalin,
Truman (replaced Roosevelt, who had died in April) and Clement Attlee (new
British Labor Prime Minister)
o
The
war with Germany was over, but no agreement was reached about her long-term
future.
o
Whether
or when the four zones would be allowed to join together and form a united
country
o
Germany
was to be disarmed, the Nazi party were to be disbanded and it's leaders tried
as war criminals
o
Agreed
that Germans should pay something towards the damage they cause during the war
o
Most
of these reparations would go to the USSR
o
It
was over Poland that the main disagreement occurred
o
Truman
and Churchill were annoyed because Germany east of the Oder-Neisse Line had
been occupied by Russian troops and was being run by the pro-communist Polish
government, which expelled some five million Germans living in the area; this
had not been agreed at Yalta.
o
Truman
didn't inform Stalin the nature of the atomic bomb, though Churchill was
o
A
few days after conference closed two atomic bombs were dropped on Japan
o
Russia
annexed south Sakhalin as agreed at Yalta, but they were allowed no parting the
occupation of Japan
Communism
Established in Eastern Europe
o
Russians
systematically interfered in the countries of eastern Europe to set up
pro-communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania, and Romania
o
Opponents
were imprisoned or murdered
o
Russians
allowed free elections, but although the communists won less that 20% of the
vote, the saw to it that the majority of the cabinets were communists
o
Stalin
scared west with speech, saying communism and capitalism could never live
peacefully
o
Russian
historians have have claimed that the speech in the west was reported in a bias
way, especially by George Kennan, who was the US chargé-d affaires in Moscow
o
Churchill
responded to all this in a speech in Fulton, Missouri in March 1946, calling
for a western alliance
o
Over
100 British Labor MPs signed a motion critiquing Churchill
o
The
Russians continued to tighten their grip on eastern Europe
o
By
the end of 1947 every state in the area, except Czechoslovakia, had a fully
communist government.
o
Elections
were rigged, non-communist members of coalition governments were expelled, many
were arrested and executed, and eventually all other political parties were dissolved
o
Occurs
under the secret Russian police Stalin treated the Russian zone of German as
Russian territory, allowing only the communist party and draining it of all
it's vital resources
o
Only
Yugoslavia became communist independently. The communist government of Marshal
Tito had been legally elected in 1945. Tito won because of his leadership in
the anti-German resistance. It was Tito's forces, not the Russians who
liberated Yugoslavia from German occupation, and Tito resented Stalin's
attempts to interfere
o
West
was profoundly irritated by Russia's treatment of eastern Europe, which
disregarded Stalin's promise of free election, made at Yalta
o
Ought
not be surprised of what was happening; even Churchill had agreed with Stalin
in 1944 that most of eastern Europe should be influenced by Russia
o
Argued
that friendly neighbouring states were necessary for self-defence, that states
had never had democracies, and communism would bring much-needed progress to
backwards countries
o
Was
Stalin's method of gaining control that upset the west, and they gave rise to
the next major developments
The
Truman Doctrine
o
Sprang
form the events in Greece, where communists were trying to overthrow the
monarchy, which had been restored by liberating Britains in 1944
o
Communists
recieving help from Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia
o
Ernest
Bevin, the British Foreign Minister, appealed to the US
o
Truman
announced (March 1947) that they would support free people who are resisting
subjugation by armed minorities and outside pressures
o
Greece
recieved arms and supplies and defeated communists in 1949
o
Threatened
Turkey recieved $6million
o
Doctrine
made it clear that US did not intend to isolate, like after WWI
o
A
policy of containing comunism in Europe, Korea, and Vietnam
Marshall
Plan
o
Announce
June 1947
o
Economic
extention of Truman Doctrine
o
American
Secretary of State George Marshall produced his European Recovery Program
(ERP)
offering financial aid
o
Policy
‘not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation,
and chaos
o
Promote
the economic recovery in Europe, thus improving markets for American exports
o
Main
aim was probably political – communism was less likely to gain control
o
By
September 16 nations had drawn up a joint plan for using American aid
o
$13,000million
of w Marshall Aid into Europe, recovering agriculture and industry
o
Although
in theory the aid was available to Eastern Europe, Russian Foreign Minister
Molotov denounced the whole idea as ‘dollar imperialism’
o
Seen
as a blatant American device for gaining control of western Europe
o
USSR
rejected the offer
o
Iron
certain seemed a reality
The
Cominform
o
The
Communist Information Burea was the Soviet responce to Marshall Plan
o
Set
up by Stalin in September 1947
o
Organization
to draw together various European communist parties
o
Stalin’s
aim was to tighten his grip on the satellites – must be Russian communist
o
Eastern
Europe was to be centralized, collectivized, and industrialized
o
States
were expected to trade primarily with Comniform members and all contracts with
non-communist countries were discouraged
o
Yugoslavia
objected and was expelled from Comniform, although she remained communist
o
1947
the Molotov Plan was introduced offering Russian aid to sarellites
o
Comecon
(Council of Muurtual Economic Assistance) was set up to co-ordinate their
economic policies
Communist
takeover of Czechoslovakia
o
Feburary
1948
o
Blow
to western block, because it was the only remaining democratic state in Eastern
Europe
o
Hoped
that C would remain a bridge between east and west, with its highly developed
industries
o
1948
– signs that Czech communists were loosing election, because blamed for
rejection of Marshall money, which might have eased food shortages
o
Communists
acted before election; already in control of unions and police, they seized
power in an armed coup
o
Elections
were held in May, but all candidates were communists
o
Western
powers in UN protested but felt unable to take action because couldnt prove
Russian involvement
o
The
coup was a purely internal affair
o
Little
doubt that Stalin, disapproving of Czech connections with the west and of the
interest in the Marshall Aid, had
prodded the communists into action
o
The
bridge between East and West was gone
o
The
certain between east and west was complete
The
Berlin blockage and airlift (June 1948-May 1949)
o
Brought
the Cold War to its first crisis-disagreement over the treatment of Germany
1.
As
agreed at Potsdam and Yalta, Germany and Berlin were each divided into four
zones
o
Stalin
determined to make Germany pay, treated his zone as a satellite, draining all
resources away to Russia
2.
Early
in 1948 the three western zones were merged to form a single economic unit,
whose prosperity contrasted to the poverty of the Russian zone
o
West
wanted all four years to be reunited and given self-government, but Stalin
decided that it would be safer if he kept the Russian zone separate, with it's
own communist, pro-Russian government
3.
In
June 1948 the West introduced a new currency and ended price controls in their
zone and in West Berlin
o
Russians
decided the situation in Berlin was impossible
o
Felt
it impossible to have two different currencies in one city and they were
embarrassed by the contrast between the prosperity in west Berlin and poverty
of the surrounding area
o
The
Russian response was immediate: all roads, rail and canal links between west
Berlin and west Germany were closed. Their aim was to force the West to
withdraw from West Berlin by reducing it to starvation point
o
The
western powers, convinced that a retreat would be the prelude to a Russian
attack on West Germany, were determined to hold on
o
Decided
to fly supplies in, rightly judging that the Russians would not risk shooting
down transport planes
o
2
million tons of supplies were airlifted to the blockade city in a remarkable
operation which kept 2.5 million alive through the winter
o
May
1949 the Russians admitted failure and locked the blockade
o
Affair
had intranet results:
o
Physiological
boost to western powers, though it brought relations with Russia to heir worst
o
Caused
western powers to coordinate their defences by the formation of NATO
o
No
compromise was possible, Germany was doomed to remain divided for the
foreseeable future
The
Formation of NATO
o
Formation
of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization occured April 1949
o
Berlin
blockade showed the West’s military unreadiness and frightened them into action
o
Signed
the Brussels Defence Treaty, promisisng military collaboration in case of war
o
Signed
North Atlantic Treaty agreeing to reguard any attack on one of them as an
attack on all of them
o
Co-ordinate
defence in West
o
Americans
abandoned their traditional policy of ‘no entering alliances’ and pledged
themselves in advance military action
o
Stalin
took it as a challenge
The
Two Germanys
o
No
prospect of Russians allowing a united Germany
o
Western
powers went ahead alone and set up German Federal Republic, know as West
Germany
o
First
Chancellor – Konrad Adeneur
o
Russians
set up German Democratic Republic, or East Germany
o
Remained
divided until the collapse of communism in East Germany (Nov-Dec 1989)
More
Nuclear Weapons
o
In
Septermber 1949 USSR exploded atomic bomb and arms race began
o
Truman
responded by comanding the US to produce the hydrogen bomb
o
Defence
advicers produced secret document, known as the NSC-68 (April 1950) which shows
they reguarded Russians as fanatics at spreading communism
o
Suggested
expenditure on armaments should be more than trippled to attempt to defeat
communism
o
A
communist government was declared in China (October 1949) with Mao Zedong
o
USSR
and China signed a treaty of alliance February 1950 and Americans feared
o
Cold
War spolight focused on Korea, where in June 1950, troops from communism North
Korea invaded non-communist South Korea
Reasons
for the thaw
o
In
some ways East-West relations did improve during 1953
1.
The
death of Stalin
o
New
Russian leader – Malenkov, Bulganin, and Khrushchev- who wanted to improve US
relations
o
By
August 1953 the Russians and Americans had developed a hydrogen bomb: the two
sides were so balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear
war was to be avoided
o
‘Peaceful
coexistance’ with West was not only possible but essential – Khrushchev
2.
McCathy
discredited
o
Anti-communist
feelings stirred up by Senator Joseph McCarthy, began to moderate when McCarthy
was discredited in 1954
o
Was
a fanatic, and when he began to accuse leading generals of having communist
sympathies, he had gone too far
o
Senate
condemed him by a large majority and he foolishly attacked the new preident
Eisenhower for supporting the Senate
o
Eisenhower
announced America would be friendly with USSR
How
did the thaw show itslef?
1.
The
first signs
o
Signing
of new peace agreement at Panmunj
o
The
Signing of the Austrian treatyom ended Korean War in July 1953
o
1954
– Indo-China war ended
2.
The
Russians made important concessions
o
Agreed
to give up military bases in Finland
o
Lifted
veto on the admission of 16 new member states into the UN
o
Quarrel
with Yugoslavia was healed when Khrushchev paid a visit to Tito
o
Cominform
was abandoned
3.
Signing
od Austrian State Treaty (May 1955)
o
End
of war 1945, Austria was divided into four zones, with Vienna in Russian zone
o
Allowed
her own government becuase not viewd as a defeated enemy, but as a state
liberated from Nazis
o
Austrian
government had only limited powers, and the problem was similar to Germany
o
West
organized recovery of zones, but Russians insisted on squeezing repayments,
mainly in the form of food supplies
o
Early
1955 Russias persuaded to be more cooperative
o
All
occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independantm wit her 1937
fronteirs
o
Not
to unite with Germany, armed forces limited, remain netural in any east-west
dispute
o
Not
join wither NATO or European Economic Community
o
Loss
of German speaking are if South Tyrol, which Italy kept
Thaw
was only partial
o
Khrushchev’s
policy was mixed
o
Quick
to respond to anything that seemed to be a threat to east
o
No
intnetions of relaxing Russia’s grip on satallite states
o
1956
when a rising in Budapest against the communist government was ruthlessly
crushed by Russian tanks
o
Pushed
Americans before they stood up to him
o
Warsaw
Pact (1955) was signed between Russia and her salelite states with mutual
defence agreement
o
Russians
continued to build up neclear armaments
o
Situation
in Berlin caused more tension
o
Khrushchev
installed Soviet missiles in Cuba (1962)
o
Western
powers were still refusing to give official recognition to East Germany
o
Khrushchev
announced the USSR no longer recognized the rights of the western powers in
Berlin
o
Americans
made in clear they would resist any attempt to push them out, Khrushchev did
not press the point
o
1960
American U-2 spy plane was shot down over a thousand miles in Russia
o
Eisenhower
declined to appologize, defending America’s right to make reconnaissance
flights
o
1961
Khrushchev again suggested that west (Kennedy) should withdraw from Berlin
o
Communists
embarassed by number of refugees escaping from East Germany into West Berlin –
3 million since 1945
o
When
Kennedy refused, the Berlin wall was erected (August 1961) a 28-mile long wall
across the city, blocking the escape route
Arms
Race Accelerates
o
Began
towards the end of 1949, when Russians produced atomic bomb
o
Russians
determined to catch up, even though placed strain on economy
o
Americans
made more powerful hydrogen bomb at end of 1952, Russians did same following
year
o
Russians
soon developed a bomber with a range long enough to reach USA
o
Americans
remained well ahead in numbers of neclear bombs and bombers, but Russians took
lead in August 1957 when produced the inter-continental ballistic missile
(ICBM) a nuclear warhead carried by a rocket so powerful it could reach the USA
from USSR
o
Americans
produced own version – Atlas
o
Began
to build neclear missiles with a shorter range, known as Jupiters and Thors and
could reach USSR from launching sites in Europe and Turkey
o
The
Russians launched first satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1958 and a few months later
Americans launched own earth satellite
Cuban
Missiles Crisis
o
Cuba
became involved when in 1950, Fidel Castro, who had just seized power from the
corrupt, American-backed dictator Batista, outraged the US by nationalizing
American-owned estates and factories
o
January
1961 the USA broke of diplomatic relations with Cuba, and the Russians
increased their economic aid
o
Convinved
that Cuba was a communist state in eveything but the name, Kennedy appoved a
plan by a group of Batista supporters to invade Cuba from American bases in
Guatemala
o
American
Central Intelligence Acency (CIA) was involved
o
General
view in US was it was permitable for them to interfere in the affairs of
soverign states and to overthrow any regimes which they felt were hostile and
too close for comfort
o
1400
men landed at the Bay of Pigs in April 1961, but the operation was badly
planned and carried out, so Castro’s forces and his two jet planes crushed it
o
Later
1961, Castro announced that he was no a Marxist and that Cuba was a socialist
country
o
Cuban
merchant ships were sunk, installations on the island were sabotaged and
American troops carried out invasion exercises
o
Castro
appealed to the USSR for military help
o
Set
up neclear missile launchers in Cuba aimed at US
o
October
1962 photographs taken from spy planes showed a misslile base under
construction
o
Why
did Khrushchev take such a risy desision:
o Russians had lost lead
in ICBMs, so theis was a way of trying to sieze the initative back again from
the US
o Place Americans under
the same sort of threat which the Russians themselves had to put up with from
American base in Turkey
o Gesture of solidarity
with ally Castro who was under constant threat from US
o Test the resolve of new
American President
o Intended to use missile
for bargaining with the West over removal of American missiles in Europe, or
withdrawl from Berlin by the West
o
Kennedy’s
military advisers urged him to launch air strikes against the bases, but he
acted more cautiously by alerting American troops, began a blockade of Cuba to
keep out the 25 Russian ships which were bringing missiles to Cuba and demanded
dismantle of missile site and removal of missiles already in Cuba
o
Verge
of nuclear war
o
Secretary
Gerneral of UN, Thant, appealed to both sides for restraint
o
Khrushchev
orderd Russian ships to tun back and promised to remove missiles and dismantle
the sites; in return Kennedy promised that the US would not invade Cuba again
and undertook disarm the Jupiter missiles in Turkey
o
Extremly
tense and had important results
o
Both
sides could claim to gain something, but sides realized how easily nuclear war
could have started
o
Produced
relaxation of tension
o
Telephone
link (‘hotline’) was introduced between Moscow and Washington to allow swift
consultation
o
July
1963, the USSR, US, and Britain signed Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, agreeing to
carry out nuclear tests only underground to avoid polluting
o
Kennedy’s
handeling of crisis was highly praised at first, but later historians have been
more critical
o
Suggested
he out to have called Khrushchev’s bluff an invaded Cuba
o
Some
historians critize him for allowing the crisis to occur in the first place,
arguing that since the Soviet long-range missiles could already reach US from
Russia, the missiles in Cuba did not pose a new threat
The
Race Continues
o
Russians
claimed the outcome of the mssiles crisis as a victory, in private they
admitted their main aim – to establish missile bases near US – had failed
o
Removal
of American Thors and Jupiters near Turkey meant nothing as American had new
threat – ballistic missiles that could be lauched from submarines in the
eastern mediterainian
o
Russians
tried to catch up and stock piled ICBMs and SLBMs
o
Motive
was to increase security and near equality with Americans, there would be
chance of persuading them to limit and reduce arms build up
o
As
Americans became more deeply involved in the war in Vietnam (1961-75) they had
less to spend on nuclear weapons and Russians caugh up
o
Early
1970s Russians overtaken US with new anti-ballistic missile ABM which could
destroy incoming missiles before they reached their targets
o
American
developed the multiple independantly targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV); this
was a massive missile which could carry as many as 14 different warheads, each
programed to different targets
o
Russians
developed own version the SS-20 (1977) these were targeted on western europe,
but not as sophisticated with only 3 warheads
o
End
of 1970 Americans responded by developing Cruise missiles, which were based in
Europe; the new refinement was that they flew at low altitudes so able to
penetrate under Russian radar
o
Main
danger was that one side or other might be tempted to win nuclear war by
strinking first and destroying the others weapons before they had time to
retaliate
Protests
Against Nuclear Weapons
o
Worried
the way major powers continued to pile up nuclear weapons and failed to make
any progress controlling them
o
Movements
tried to persuade governments to abolish nuclear weapons
o
In
Britain the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmant (CND) put pressure on the government
so that Britain would be first to abandon nuclear weapons
o
Unilateral
disarmament (disarmament by state only)
o
Hoped
that US and USSR would follow
o
Held
mass demonstrations and rallies, like a march from London to Aldermaston
o
Bo
British government took risk
o
Believed
that would leave Britain vulnerable to nuclear attack from USSR and would only
consider abandoning their weapons as part of a general agreement by all major
states (multilateral disarmament)
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